General Muslim Customs & Traditions

Every culture, besides a number of

other things, has its own distinct set of customs, traditions and etiquettes. In

fact, one of the important distinguishing features between one nation and one

tribe and another has generally been its distinct set of customs, traditions and

etiquettes. The nation or tribe formed by the followers of the prophets and

messengers of God is no exception. In the formation of this group, the prophets

of God directed their followers to conform to a particular set of customs and

etiquettes, which would distinguish them as a nation of the followers of God’s

prophets. However, because the basic objective of all prophetic teachings is to

cleanse the human mind, body and soul from all that has the potential of

defiling it, the customs and etiquettes for this group of people have also been

fixed and promoted with the same target in perspective.

The Arab culture, originally, being

one consisting of adherents of the Abrahamic traditions, had a number of these

customs, traditions and etiquettes in vogue, even before the advent of the

Prophet (pbuh). With only a few minor exceptions, the Prophet (pbuh) did not

alter or add anything to these traditions and customs of the Abrahamic legacy.

Thus, these traditions, generally, are a more primitive part of Islam, as

compared to the Qur’an. After the approval of the Prophet (pbuh), they have

been transmitted to the Muslim community through the conceptual consensus and

the practical perpetuation of the companions of the Prophet (pbuh). Thus, the

source of these customs, traditions and etiquettes is the conceptual consensus

and the practical perpetuation of the companions of the Prophet (pbuh) and every

subsequent generation of Muslims.

An introduction of the Islamic

customs, traditions and etiquettes follows:

1- Pronouncing

God’s Name Before Eating or Drinking

The pronouncement of God’s name

before eating or drinking is with a twofold purpose. Firstly, as a recognition

of God’s countless blessings upon us, and secondly as a supplication for the

continuation and abundance of these blessings in future. The Prophet (pbuh) is

reported to have stressed strict adherence to this etiquette in a number of

sayings ascribed to him. The Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have said:

Whenever anyone of you eats, he

should say: ‘[I begin] with the name of God’. If he forgets, he should

then say: ‘With the name of God, at the beginning 

as well as at the end”.

2- Using the

Right Hand for Eating & Drinking

After pronouncing God’s name

before starting to eat or drink, a Muslim should use his right hand for eating

and drinking. This practice is a continual reminder for Muslims to strive to be

among those, who – on the Day of Judgment – shall get their records in their

right hands^[1].

Adherence to this practice, on behalf of the individual symbolizes his desire

and commitment to be among the people of ‘right hand’ on the Day of Judgment^[2].

The Prophet (pbuh) has stressed adherence to this practice in a number of

narratives ascribed to him. In one of these narratives, the Prophet (pbuh) is

reported to have said:

Whenever one of you eats, he

should eat with his right hand and whenever he drinks, he should drink using

his right hand.

3- Muslim

Greeting & its Response

At the time of meeting a Muslim

should greet his brother with the words:

(Assalaam `alaikum^[3]).

The addressees should subsequently respond with the words:

(Wa `alaikum Assalaam^[4]).

These words are, in fact, a supplication for the addressee for peace and

blessings during the life of this world as well as the hereafter. These words

have been referred to in the Qur’an as well as in sayings ascribed to the

Prophet (pbuh). As a further etiquette of greeting others, the Prophet is also

reported to have said:

The young should take precedence

in greeting the old, the passer-by should take precedence in greeting the one

who is sitting and the smaller group should first greet the larger group.

4- Blessing

After Sneeze & its Response

A sneeze is a relief from a common

temporary disorder in the human body. After being relieved from this temporary

disorder, a Muslim should thank the Almighty with the words:

(Al-Hamdulillah^[5]),

while those present around him, who hear him praise and thank the Lord, should

pray for God’s mercy and blessings for him with the words:

(Yarhamukallah^[6]).

The initial utterance is obviously to thank the Almighty for the relief one

feels after sneezing, while the response – entailing an invocation of God’s

mercy for the person who has thanked his Lord – signifies a reminder of the

fact that God’s mercy and His blessings are, in fact, the right only of the

thankful. This practice of thanking God after sneezing and then of responding

with an invocation of God’s mercy for the person who has thanked God is known

in the Arabic language as ‘Tashmeet’.

‘Tashmeet’ has been one of the

common practices among the followers of God’s prophets. The mere fact that

there was a word for this practice in the pre-Islamic Arabic language clearly

evidences the fact that this practice was also in vogue among the Arabs even

before the advent of the Prophet (pbuh). The Prophet (pbuh) approved and

promoted this practice among his followers without any alteration. The Prophet (pbuh)

is reported to have said:

When one of you sneezes, he should

say: “All gratitude is due to God”, his brother or his companion, in

response should say: “May God bless you/have mercy upon you”, then again

as a response, the listener should say: “May God guide you all and make you

all more virtuous”.

5- Reciting ‘Adhaan’ in the Right Ear of a

its Left Ear

This tradition was initiated by the

Prophet (pbuh).

The words of the Adhaan^[7]

and the Iqaamah^[8],

as fixed by the Prophet (pbuh), according to God’s directive, entail the

complete summarized message of Islam^[9].

The Adhaan – the call to prayers

is, in fact, a call to Islam – a call to complete submission to God’s will.

The Iqaamah – the announcement

of the initiation of prayer is, in fact, a call for preparedness for serving and

worshiping God. Every Muslim is continually being called toward the message

entailed in the Adhaan and the Iqaamah.

This message is being delivered through our mosques five times during every day.

Recitation of the Adhaan in the right and the Iqaamah

in the left ear of a new born child symbolizes, on behalf of the parents, that

like their respective physical contributions in the formation of the child, they

have also, through the deliverance of God’s message, initiated the

transmission of their spiritual beings to the child.

6- Trimming

Clipping Nails & Circumcision

As part of the teachings related to

physical cleansing, the Prophet (pbuh) directed the Muslims to trim their

moustaches, remove the hair from their pubic area and that which grows under the

armpits, clip their nails and circumcise their male offspring. These practices

were approved, adopted and promoted by the Prophet (pbuh) as symbols of

cleanness.

Large and unkempt moustaches have

generally been considered a sign of arrogance. Moreover, such moustaches can

also soil food and water at the time of eating and drinking. Likewise, large

nails are not only a sign of an uncouth and a dirty personality, but also give a

wild and beastly appearance. Thus, the Prophet (pbuh) gave the directive

regarding the trimming of moustaches and the clipping of nails. In the same

manner, removing hair from the pubic area and from under the armpits and

circumcising the male offspring are also clearly related to physical cleansing.

To stress adherence to all these practices, the Prophet (pbuh) even fixed a

time-period for some of these practices. According to one of the narratives, Anas (ra) is reported to have said:

We were directed not to leave our

moustaches untrimmed, our nails unclipped and the hair on our pubic area and

under our armpits unshaved for over forty days.

All these practices were generally

adhered to by the Arabs, even before the advent of the Prophet (pbuh)^[10].

Adherence to all these practices is, in fact, a part of human nature, which, in

view of their significance in our physical cleansing and purification, have

always been a permanent feature of the teachings of the prophets of God. The

Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have said:

Five things are a part of man’s

nature^[11]:

Circumcision, removing pubic hair, clipping nails, removing hair from the

armpits and trimming moustaches.

7- Keeping

the Nose, the Mouth & the Teeth Clean

As a part of elevating the religious

tastes and developing a strong sense of purification and cleanliness among their

followers, cleaning the nose, the mouth and the teeth has been a permanent

feature of the teachings of the prophets of God. Maintaining cleanliness and

hygiene, especially, keeping the nose, the mouth and the teeth clean has been

mentioned in the history of the Arabs, since pre-Islamic times, as an accepted

religious tradition^[12].

The Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have strictly adhered to the practice of

rinsing his mouth and his nose every time he performed his ablutions. In the

same manner, he also greatly stressed the importance of keeping the teeth clean.

He is reported to have said:

Had it not been for the burden

that it may have caused for my followers, I would have directed them to brush

their teeth before every prayer.

8- Washing

after Urination and Defecation

The Arabic word “Istenjaa” is used as a term for cleaning the related

organs after urination and defecation. “Istenjaa”,

like many of the aforementioned customs and traditions, was also strictly

adhered to by the Arabs, since pre-Islamic times^[13].

Depending upon the circumstances, “Istenjaa”

may be performed with water, with pebbles of dry earth or with any other

suitable thing. The Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have preferred using water for

the purpose. Abu Hurairah (ra) is

reported to have said:

When the Prophet would go to

relieve himself (i.e. to urinate or defecate), I would get him water in a pot.

He would perform Istenjaa with

the water and brush his hand on the earth.

9- Refraining

from Sexual Contact During a Woman’s Menstruation and her Puerperal Discharge

Refraining from sexual contact with

women during their menstruation and during their puerperal discharge has been a

part of all revealed religions. The Arabs, under the influence of the Abrahamic

traditions, strictly adhered to this restraint even before the advent of the

Prophet (pbuh). This restraint is also referred, from various aspects, in the

pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. There was no noticeable difference of opinion or

practice in this regard. However, the allowable limits of interaction with women

during these days were not as clear. There were some extremely strict opinions

regarding these limits. Some even considered the touch of a menstruating woman

to be defiling and corrupting their physical cleanness. Thus, when people

inquired about these limits, the Qur’an clarified these limits (Al-Baqarah

2: 222) in the following words:

They ask you about menstruation.

Say: it is a state of uncleanness. Therefore, detach yourselves from women

during their menstruation, and do not approach them until they are clean [from

menstruation]. Then, when they have cleansed themselves, approach them, from

where God has ordained you. Indeed God loves the repentant and He loves those

who keep themselves cleansed.

The

Qur’an, in the cited verses, has clarified that the ‘detachment’ from

women prescribed during their menstruation, relates only to conjugal (sexual)

relations with them. It does not imply that a woman during her menstruation

should be rendered ‘untouchable’ during these days, as is the case in some

societies and religions. Furthermore, the addition of the words “when they

have cleansed themselves, approach them, from where God has ordained you”,

after the words “do not approach them until they are clean [from

menstruation]”, evidence the point that even though the prohibition of

conjugal relations extends till the continuation of the menstrual discharge, yet

the Qur’an has recommended that the recommencement of conjugal relations

should be postponed till after the woman has physically cleansed and washed

herself.

In the

last part of the verse, a beautiful analogy is drawn between repentance and

keeping oneself physically clean. A close look at the two phenomena shows that

they essentially refer to the same thing from two different perspectives.

Physical cleansing, as we know, refers to relieving the body from all such

things that soil and defile it; Repentance, on the other hand, is in fact, the

cleansing of the soul – i.e. relieving the soul from all such things that have

the potential of soiling and defiling it. Thus, the last part of the verse

declares that to deserve God’s love, one should continually strive to keep his

body as well as his soul cleansed.

10-

Uncleanness

Bathing after menstrual and 

puerperal discharge of blood and after sexual contact has also been a

part of all divine religions. It was also a common tradition among the Arabs,

even before the advent of Islam, as an Abrahamic tradition. As has been cited

above, the Qur’an has referred to a woman’s bathing after the

discontinuation of her menstrual bleeding. The same rules, as given in the

Qur’an for menstruation, should obviously apply to puerperal bleeding as well.

Bathing after sexual contact, especially before offering Sala’h,

is also referred to in the Qur’an. The Qur’an (Al-Nisaa

4: 43) says:

Believers, do not go near prayers,

while you are in a state of intoxication, until the time that you are aware of

what you say and neither in a state of sexual uncleanness, until you bathe

yourselves carefully, except that you only intend to pass through [the

mosque].

In Surah

Al-Maaidah, the words ^[14]

have been used for the same implication. Sexual uncleanness, over here, refers

to a person’s condition after sexual intercourse or sexual climax. After such

a condition, bathing is prescribed for physical cleansing. The recommended bath

is not merely to throw water on oneself, on the contrary, as the Arabic verbs

and

^[15]

imply it should be conducted with special care. The example set by the Prophet (pbuh)

relating to bathing after sexual uncleanness, as reported in a 

number of narratives, entailed the following, sequential, steps:

1. Carefully washing hands;

2. Carefully washing and cleaning the

   organ, using the left hand;

3. Conducting the complete ritual

   ablution, prescribed for prayers, except for washing the feet;

4. Thoroughly washing the head while

   rinsing the hair;

5. Washing the whole body;

6. Washing the feet.

Following are two of the narratives

reported by Hadhrat Ayesha (ra)

and Hadhrat Maimoonah (ra) – the

mothers of the believers – relating to the Prophet’s (pbuh) bath:

Hadhrat Ayesha (ra) reports that when the Prophet (pbuh)

bathed after sexual uncleanness, he used to wash his hands, then pouring some

water with his right hand on the left one, he used to clean his private parts,

then he used to do ablution, as he would do before prayers, then taking some

water, he would deeply massage his hair till he was satisfied that the skin of

his head had been washed, then he would pour three handfuls of water on his

head and then pour water all over his body. In the end, he would wash his

feet.

Ibn Abbas (ra)

reports: “My aunt told me that she placed some water for the Prophet (pbuh)

to bathe after sexual uncleanness. The Prophet (pbuh) [while bathing] started

with washing his hands two or three times. Then taking some water from the

utensil with his right hand, poured some water on his private parts, cleaning

these with his left hand. Then he thoroughly rubbed his left hand on the floor

[to clean it]. Then he performed ablution, as it is performed for prayers.

Then he poured three handfuls of water over his head. Then he washed his whole

body. Then stepping aside, he washed his feet.

11- Washing

the Corpse

Washing a corpse, before burial, is

also a part of the religious customs and traditions promoted by the previous

prophets of God. Although it suffices to thoroughly pour water over the dead

body, yet in view of the extraordinary importance of cleanliness and physical

cleansing, the corpse should be washed as thoroughly as possible. The Prophet (pbuh)

is reported to have said:

Wash her^[16]

with water and jujube leaves three, five or even more times, if you would. And

the last time you wash her, mix some camphor in the water as well.

According to another narrative, the

Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have said:

Wash her in odd numbers, three,

five or seven times. Start with her right side and wash those parts first,

which are washed during ablution for prayers.

12- Shrouding

the Corpse

Shrouding the corpse, after washing

it, is also a part of the Abrahamic tradition of religion^[17].

Even though the corpse may be shrouded simply in a single sheet of cloth, yet as

a show of honor and regard for the dead, it is highly recommended that this

shrouding be done with special care. According to a narrative ascribed to Ayesha

(ra), the Prophet (pbuh) was shrouded in three sheets of white cotton and there

was no shirt or head covering on him, when he was laid to rest^[18].

The Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have said:

When one of you shrouds his dead

brother, he should shroud him in the best of manners.

13- Burying

the Dead

The method adopted and promoted by

the prophets of God, for laying the dead to rest is burial in the ground in a

grave, which is dug specially for this purpose^[19].

The details of the method of burial or the exact architecture of the grave have

not been determined by the Prophet (pbuh). Any method may, therefore, be adopted

for the purpose. The grave may be a straight pit covered with blocks, to avoid

direct contact of dirt with the corpse or it may be an angled pit^[20].

The corpse may or may not be placed in a coffin, before burial. The Prophet (pbuh),

however, expressed his dislike toward construction of a mausoleum over the grave

and making a permanent structures and writing inscriptions over it^[21].

It has also been reported in a few narratives that after laying the dead to

rest, the Prophet (pbuh) would put three handfuls of dust in the grave, at the

side of the corpse’s head^[22].

It has also been reported that while laying the dead in the grave, the Prophet (pbuh)

would say:

(Bismillahi wa `alaa Sunnati Rasoolillahi)^[23].

The Prophet (pbuh) is also reported to have directed others to say these words^[24].

It has also been reported in a few narratives that after the burial, the Prophet

(pbuh) would ask the Muslims to pray for the forgiveness and salvation of their

dead brother. In one of the narratives, the Prophet (pbuh) is reported to have

said:

Ask forgiveness for your brother

and pray for his steadfastness, as now he is faced with his accountability.

14–

^[25]

These two annual festivals were

initiated by the Prophet (pbuh), according to the directives of God. A few

annual festivals have been mentioned in the books of history as a part of the

socio-religious tradition of the Arab polytheists. In the same manner, a few

celebrations have also remained a part of the Jewish traditions, however,

according to the Torah and other scriptures, it is clear that all these

festivals were, in fact, in commemoration of certain events of national

significance in the history of the Israelites. Through the last revelation of

His guidance to man, God promulgated the two Eid

days as religious celebrations. Both these celebrations, which God recognized

and promoted in His final Shari`ah,

through the Prophet (pbuh), are connected to the two most significant events of

submission to God’s will and piety. Eid al-Fitr

is celebrated every year at the end of the month of Ramadhan (the month of fasting), on the first day of Shawwal

(the month following the month of Ramadhan),

after the Muslims have completed the prescribed fasting during Ramadhan.

Eid al-Adha is celebrated on the

10^th of Dhulhajj (the

last month of the Muslim calendar, during which the Muslims undertake the

pilgrimage of the Ka`bah), in

commemoration of the great sacrifice of Abraham (pbuh).

According to some historical

narratives, it has been reported that both these festivals were first initiated

after the Prophet (pbuh)’s migration and the establishment of the first Muslim

state in Medinah. In one such narrative, Hadhrat

Anas (ra) is reported to have said:

When the Prophet (pbuh) reached

Medinah, people used to observe two festivals, in which they would play games

and have fun. The Prophet (pbuh) asked them: ‘What is the significance of

these two days?’ People told him: ‘Since the pre-Islamic days, these have

been our days of celebration and games’. The Prophet (pbuh) said: God has

replaced these days with two other days: the day of the Eid

al-Adha and the day of the Eid

al-Fitr.

A few actions were promulgated by

the Prophet (pbuh) through his Sunnah

for all Muslims to observe with reference to these days. These actions include:

1. Zaka’h al-Fitr;
2. The address and the prayer on the Eid

   days; and

3. Declaring God’s praise and His greatness, after each prayer during the

   three days^[26]

   following the Eid al-Adha.

The Zaka’h

al-Fitr is to be paid during the last days of Ramadhan,

before the Eid. The amount to be

paid as Zaka’h al-Fitr has been

prescribed at one day’s food requirements of a person. It is to be paid for

each person, whether young or old, in one’s household. During the days of the

Prophet (pbuh), it was, generally, prescribed in terms of grain. It was

prescribed by the Prophet (pbuh) at approximately two and a half kilograms of

any of the more popular grains. According to one of the narratives reported by Bukhari:

The Prophet (pbuh) prescribed Zaka’h

al-Fitr at a Saa`^[27]

of dates or barley upon every Muslim: whether slave or free, man or woman,

grown-up or a child. He also directed that it should be distributed before

going for prayers^[28]

on the Eid day.

According to Abd

Allah ibn Abbas (ra), the Prophet (pbuh) prescribed the payment of

the Zaka’h al-Fitr as atonement

or penance for any wrongdoings during the month of Ramadhan

as well as for making arrangements for the food of the deprived^[29].

The

details regarding the Eid address

and prayer shall be covered in the article regarding the ‘Forms of Islamic

Worship’.

Praising

and glorifying God after each

prayer has been prescribed without fixing any specific words for such praise and

glorification. This implies that any words may be used for such declaration^[30].

The days during which such declaration is formally prescribed are the same,

which have been prescribed for staying at Minaa,

after the sacrifice during Hajj.

These days are also considered to be a part of the Eid celebrations after the 10^th

of Dhul Hajj.

Both the

festivals of Eid al-Fitr and Eid

al-Adhaa are special occasions for the remembrance of God and

expressing gratitude towards Him as well as for celebration, enjoyment and

entertainment. According to Hadhrat Ayesha

(ra), once when Abu Bakr (ra)

tried to stop some young girls from singing songs in the Prophet (pbuh)’s

house, he said:

Abu

Bakr, every nation has a day of celebration. This is our day of

celebration [therefore, let these girls entertain themselves].

According

to some of the narratives reported in the various compilations, the Prophet (pbuh)’s

general routine on these days was as under:

• On the day of Eid al-Fitr, the Prophet (pbuh) would eat a few dates (in odd

  numbers) before leaving for the Eid

  congregation and prayer^[31].

• On the day of Eid al-Adhaa, the Prophet (pbuh) would not eat anything

  before the Eid congregation

  and prayer^[32].

• On both these occasions, the Prophet (pbuh)

  would take a separate route while approaching and returning from the place

  of the Eid congregation and

  prayers^[33].

The Mosaic Traditions

Some of the customs and traditions

explained above form an integral part of the Mosaic laws as well. Information

regarding these traditions are scattered in the various source books of the

Jewish traditions. For instance, according to the Encyclopedia of Judaism, a

benediction before and after meals is an essential custom among the Jews. The

Encyclopedia writes:

In Hebrew, this blessing is

popularly known as ha- motsi since

the text reads: “Blessed are You, O Lord… who brings forth [ha-motsi]

bread from the earth.” Based on Ps. 104:14, the wording used was fixed by

the sages (Ber. 6.1, 38a). Pronouncing this benediction accords with the

rabbinic view that “it is forbidden and sacrilegious for anyone to enjoy

[the good things] of this world without a blessing” (Ber. 35a), and that

failure to recite a benediction over food is tantamount to “defrauding the

Almighty” (Tosef.  Ber. 4.1)…

… When several people join

together in a meal, the householder or oldest male present recites the Grace

and then distributes portions of the loaf to everyone else. In non-Orthodox

circles this function may be performed by a woman. The act of saying Grace

before a meal automatically exempts one from having to recite any other

benedictions at table, apart from the statutory blessings over wine and fruit.

When the piece of bread eaten is equivalent to the size of an olive, the

recitation of Grace After Meals becomes obligatory. Except during the New Year

season… (The Encyclopedia of Judaism, Grace Before Meals)

The Encyclopedia further writes:

These Birkhot

ha-Nehenin (“Benedictions for Enjoyment”) are traced to sources

in the Bible which allude to an expression of thanksgiving before and after

eating (1Sam. 9:13; Deut. 8:10). The Talmud adds that “it is forbidden to

taste anything before making a benediction,” since the bounty and fullness

of the earth belong to God (Ps. 24:1) and not offering thanks for their

enjoyment is tantamount to stealing from Him (Ber. 35a). (Encyclopedia of

Judaism, Benedictions)

In response to my question regarding

the adherence of the modern Jews to the custom of offering a benediction before

eating, Ms. Alifa Saadiya^[34]

responded with the following:

Jews recite a special “blessing” using a traditional form always begins:

“Blessed are You,

Lord our God, King of the Universe-and-Time…” After that, the formula

varies according to whether one is eating a meal, a specific food, taking a

drink, or performing some activity commanded by the Torah, or certain other

things (e.g., there is a special blessing recited after we wash after using

the toilet).

Any meal at which bread is served,

begins by washing the hands and saying a blessing for that, then, without

speaking on any other matter, one proceeds to say the blessing over bread: “Blessed are You, etc., …who brings forth bread from the earth.” After

this, the whole meal is served, then the hands are rinsed again (but no

blessing is required for this), and a long Grace after Meals is recited or

sung, which includes many passages from the Torah, the Psalms, and other parts

of the Bible, along with many expressions of gratitude to God for providing

all creatures with sustenance, for Jerusalem, for the Sabbath and Holy Days,

and at the end, various petitions – for an honorable livelihood, for health,

for peace among family members, to return Jews to their land, to restore

Jerusalem, to bring the Messiah, to bring peace. There is a slightly different

wording, depending on which Jewish community one comes from, Ashkenazi

(European), Sefardi (Spanish or Oriental Jews), etc.

Whenever we eat outside of formal

meals (that is, those at which bread is served), we also say special blessings

for different types of food: wine and grape products, grains, vegetables,

fruits, and everything else. There are short blessings to be recited after

eating these.

According to Matthew, Jesus (pbuh)

strictly adhered to this custom. The Gospel reads:

While they were eating, Jesus took

some bread, and after a blessing, He broke it and gave it to the disciples…

(Matthew 26: 26)

In his commentary on the Bible, Adam

Clarke, while explaining this verse writes:

Our Lord here conforms himself to

that constant Jewish custom, viz. of acknowledging God as the author of every

good and perfect gift, by giving thanks on taking the bread and taking the cup

at their ordinary meals. For every Jew was forbidden to eat, drink, or use any

of God’s creatures without rendering him thanks; and he who acted contrary

to this command was considered as a person who was guilty of sacrilege. From

this custom we have derived the decent and laudable one of saying grace (gratas

thanks) before and after meat^[35].

The Jewish form of blessing, probably that which our Lord used on this

occasion, none of my readers will be displeased to find here, though it has

been mentioned once before. On taking the bread they say:- Baruch

atta Elohinoo, Melech, haolam, ha motse Lechem min haarets. Blessed

be thou, our God, King of the universe, who bringest forth bread out of the

earth! Likewise, on taking the cup, they say:- Baruch

Elohinoo, Melech, haolam, Bore perey haggephen. Blessed be our God,

the King of the universe, the Creator of the fruit it of the vine!

The Mohammedans copy their

example, constantly saying before and after meat:- Bismillahi

arahmani arraheemi. In the name of God, the most merciful, the most

compassionate. (Adam Clarke’s Commentary on the Bible, Matthew 26: 26)

Regarding the importance of the

Right hand, the Encyclopedia Judaica writes:

Although there does exist some

evidence that the left was regarded as “sinister” in the Talmud, the general

opinion, both in halakhah and aggadah,

is merely that the right is more important and significant than the left. The

word yad (“hand”), without

qualification, was taken to refer always to the right hand, as the word ezba

(“finger”) to the index finger of the right hand (Zev. 24a). All religious

duties had normally to be performed with the right hand (or foot). (Encyclopedia

Judaica, ‘Right and Left’)

The Talmud says:

Our Rabbis taught: When one puts

on his shoes, he must put on the right first and then the left; when he

removes [them], he must remove the left [first] and then the right. When one

washes, he must [first] wash the right [hand, foot] and then the left. When

one anoints [himself] with oil, he must anoint the right and then the left. (Berachoth

62a)

The mutual greetings of the Jews, as

is well known, is with the words “Shalom

`aleka”

or “Shalom Aleichem”. It is

clear that it is exactly the same as the one adhered to by the Muslims.

In her response to my question

regarding the Jewish greetings, Ms. Alifa Saady wrote:

In general, most people don’t use

a particular greeting, although “Shalom

aleikhem” is used a lot, especially in very religiously observant

communities. The response is “Aleikhem

Shalom” (“Peace be with you.” and “And with you, Peace.”)

I would say that one encounters this greeting mostly in a religious setting – at a synagogue, or for some holy day occasion, or at a circumcision or

wedding. In everyday Israel, most people go straight to asking “Ma

nishma?” (How are you?) and say goodbye with “L’hitraot”

(“until we meet again”). Sometimes, a vestige of “God be with you”

creeps in when people say, “L’hitraot

‘bye” (because in English, Good-bye means “God be with you.”)

Regarding the mutual greetings, the

Talmud writes:

R. Helbo further said in the name

of R. Huna: If one knows that his friend is used to greet him, let him greet

him first. For it is said: Seek peace and pursue it. And if his friend greets

him and he does not return the greeting he is called a robber. (Berechoth 6b)

Thus, as in the Muslim tradition,

the Jewish tradition prescribes the greeting as well as returning or responding

to it. Moreover, the greeting as well as the response to it is absolutely the

same in the Jewish tradition, as is followed by the Muslims.

The Encyclopedia of Judaism writes:

As the Bible indicates, many forms

of salutation and well-wishing were current in ancient Israel, often

consisting of merely two or three words (Gen. 24:31; Deut. 31:23; Ruth 2:4).

By rabbinic times, such Hebrew greetings had been extended occasionally with

new phrases in Aramaic; and, from the Middle Ages, these were sometimes given

Yiddish equivalents among the Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern Europe. The

Hebrew term which most commonly figures in such expressions is ‘shalom’ (Peace), since it is closely associated with

man’s health, well-being, and natural state of mind. According to the sages,

a person’s character may be gauged from his walk, dress, and way of greeting

others; if possible, one should “be the first to greet” (Avot. 4.15) and “he who fails to return a greeting is considered a robber”

(Ber. 6b).

(Encyclopedia of Judaism, Greetings, Congratulations and Good Wishes)

Regarding the blessing following a

sneeze, the Encyclopedia Judaica writes:

Another social custom prevalent

among Jews is to say “God bless you” (the exclamation asuta

meaning “health”) to anyone who sneezes. This custom is

associated with the legend that in antiquity sneezing was a sign, which

forebode the sneezer’s forthcoming death, but which no longer prevailed

after the time of Jacob… The origin of the custom, however, is not confined

to Jews. (Encyclopedia Judaica, ‘Folklore’)

In response to my request for

information regarding this custom, Ms. Saadya wrote:

… an ancient Jewish tradition

relates that in the time of the biblical Patriarchs, people would actually die

if they sneezed! So, the response is usually, here in Israel, to say “Labriut!”

(to your health), or the Yiddish version, “Gesundheit!”

or even the English, “God bless you!”

Regarding the recitation of a prayer

in the ears of a new born child, Ms. Alifa Saadya wrote:

You wrote about the custom of

reciting the declaration of belief in a newborn baby’s ears. In Judaism, too,

there is a custom to recite the Sh’ma (“Hear O Israel, the Lord your God

is One”)^[36]

in a baby’s ear when first meeting him or her. I have encountered this

primarily among Sephardi Jews.

Regarding the trimming of the

moustaches, the Talmud reads:

Abitol the hair-dresser said in

the name of Rab that [trimming the] upper lip means from corner^[37]

to corner; [and of the drooping ends too, all that causes inconvenience]. Said

R. Ammi, And as regards the upper lip [it also means only] whatever part

causes inconvenience. Said R. Nahman b. Isaac, And to me [all of it] is like

the [end of the] upper lip causing inconvenience. (Mo’ed Katan 18a)

Trimming of moustaches is also

referred to in one of the writings of the Early Church Fathers. Clement of

Alexandria writes:

About the hair, the following

seems right. Let the head of men be shaven, unless it has curly hair. But let

the chin have the hair. But let not twisted locks hang far down from the head,

gliding into womanish ringlets. For an ample beard suffices for men. And if

one, too, shave a part of his beard, it must not be made entirely bare, for

this is a disgraceful sight. The shaving of the chin to the skin is

reprehensible, approaching to plucking out the hair and smoothing. For

instance, thus the Psalmist, delighted with the hair of the beard, says, “As

the ointment that descends on the beard, the beard of Aaron.”

Having celebrated the beauty of

the beard by a repetition, he made the face to shine with the ointment of the

Lord.

Since cropping is to be adopted

not for the sake of elegance, but on account of the necessity of the case; the

hair of the head, that it may not grow so long as to come down and interfere

with the eyes, and that of the moustache similarly, which is dirtied in

eating, is to be cut round, not by the razor, for that were not well-bred, but

by a pair of cropping scissors. But the hair on the chin is not to be

disturbed, as it gives no trouble, and lends to the face dignity and paternal

terror. (Early Church Fathers, The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 2, Fathers of

the Second Century, Clement of Alexandria, Paedagogus, Book 3, Chapter 11)

Although there exists no positive

evidence for the custom of paring nails, yet it is clear that untrimmed hair and

unpaired nails were considered to be a symbol of one’s grief, which obviously

implies that clipping one’s nails was generally observed as a part of hygiene

and cleanliness^[38].

Cutting nails was also a part of the

Jewish baptism:

The baptism was to be performed in

the presence of three witnesses, ordinarily Sanhedrists (Yebam. 47 b), but in

case of necessity others might act. The person to be baptized, having cut his

hair and nails, undressed completely, made fresh proffession of his faith

before what were ‘the fathers of the baptism’ (our Godfathers, Kethub. 11 a;

Erub. 15 a), and then immersed completely, so that every part of the body was

touched by the water. The rite would, of course, be accompanied by

exhortations and benedictions (Maimonides, Hilkh. Milah 3:4; Hilkh. Iss. Biah

14:6). (Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Volume 2, Appendix XII, Alfred

Edersheim)

Circumcision is referred to in the

Bible as being first directed to Abraham (pbuh). Genesis says:

God said further to Abraham, “Now as for you, you shall keep My covenant, you and your descendants after

you throughout their generations. This is My covenant, which you shall keep,

between Me and you and your descendants after you: every male among you shall

be circumcised. And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin,

and it shall be the sign of the covenant between Me and you. And every male

among you who is eight days old shall be circumcised throughout your

generations, a servant who is born in the house or who is bought with money

from any foreigner, who is not of your descendants. A servant who is born in

your house or who is bought with your money shall surely be circumcised; thus

shall My covenant be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant. But an

uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that

person shall be cut off from his people; he has broken My covenant.” (17: 9 – 14)

The same directive was repeated to

Moses in the following words:

Then the LORD spoke to Moses,

saying, “Speak to the sons of Israel, saying: ‘When a woman gives birth

and bears a male child, then she shall be unclean for seven days, as in the

days of her menstruation she shall be unclean. On the eighth day the flesh of

his foreskin shall be circumcised.'” (Leviticus 12: 1 – 3)

Explaining the Jewish custom in more

detail the Encyclopedia Judaica writes:

It is a Jewish father’s duty to

have his son circumcised (Sh. Ar., YD 260:1). Should he neglect to do so, it

devolved on the bet din^[39]

(ibid., 260:2). It is not a

sacrament, and any child born of a Jewish mother is a Jew, whether circumcised

or not. Although circumcision may be performed by any Jew (or Jewess if no

male is available: Maim. Yad, Milah, 2:1), in the first instance it is

desirable that the operator, called a mohel,

be a loyal adherent to the tenets of Judaism (Sh. Ar., YD 264:1). Even in

Talmudic times, he was described as a craftsman. In most modern communities,

he has been specially trained in the principles of asepsis and in the

technique of circumcision and has received rabbinic recognition. The operation

must be performed on the eighth day, preferably early in the morning (YD

262:1), thus emulating Abraham in his eagerness to undertake a divine command.

Should the child be premature or in poor health, the rite must be postponed

until seven days after he has recovered from a general disease or until

immediately after recovery from a local disorder (262:2 – 263:3). Should a

child for any reason have been circumcised before the eighth day or have been

born already circumcised (i.e., without a foreskin), the ceremony of “shedding the blood of the covenant” (hattafat

dam berit) must be performed on the eighth day, provided it is a

weekday and the child is fit (263:4). This is done by puncturing the skin of

the glans with a scalpel or needle and allowing a drop of blood to exude. If

the eighth day is a Sabbath or festival, the circumcision must nevertheless

take place (266:2) unless the child is born by Caesarean section, when it is

postponed to the next weekday. There are special laws relating to the time of

circumcision of a child born during twilight of the Sabbath or festival (262:

4 – 6). There was a talmudic disputation as to whether preparations for the

operation that are forbidden on the Sabbath may be undertaken on that day, if

they have been previously omitted (Shab. 130a-132b).

… The child is brought from the

mother by the godmother and handed over at the door of the room to the

godfather who, in turn, hands it to the mohel. Before this, the child is welcomed by the congregation

with Barukh ha-Ba (“Blessed be

he that comes”) and the Sephardim^[40]

sing a piyyut^[41]

in which those who keep the covenant are blessed. The mohel

places the baby for a moment on the Chair of Elijah, after which it is placed

on a pillow on the knees of the sandak

(“holder”). The infant’s legs are held firmly by the sandak;

the mohel, having previously

thoroughly scrubbed and immersed his hands in a disinfectant solution, takes a

firm grip of the foreskin with his left hand. Having determined the amount to

be removed, he fixes the shield on it to protect the glans from injury. The

knife, sometimes double-edged, is then taken in the right hand and the

foreskin is amputated with one sweep along the shield. This discloses the

mucous membrane, the edge of which is then grasped firmly between the

thumbnail and index finger of each hand and is torn down the center as far as

the corona. This part of the operation is called peri’ah.

Sometimes this maneuver is performed with scissors, but it is known that a

lacerated wound is much less likely to bleed than a cut wound.

… The next stage is the

performance of mezizah

(“suction”). This has led to much controversy in recent years. Throughout

the ages this was done by suction by the mouth in order, according to

Maimonides, to remove the blood from the distant parts of the wound (Maim. Yad,

Milah, 2:2). It was the recognized method of disinfection at the time. A mohel

who refrained from performing it was considered to be endangering the life of

the child, and had to be debarred from practice. Toward the middle of the 19th

and the beginning of the 20th century cases of syphilis, tuberculosis, and

diphtheria occurring in infants were ascribed to infection from mohalim

using this method of suction. This has been contested by a few Jewish doctors,

and some communities still follow the original practice. The Paris Consistoire

abolished mezizah

in 1843. The method now authorized by most rabbinical courts is for mezizah

to be performed either by a swab or through a glass tube, preferably

containing a small piece of absorbent cotton. The rounded end of the tube is

placed firmly over the penis, pressed firmly over the area of the pubis, and

suction by the mouth is carried out through the flattened end of the tube or

through a rubber attachment. This is followed by the application of a sterile

dressing, and the readjustment of the diaper.

Immediately after the actual

circumcision the father recites the benediction “Who hast hallowed us by Thy

commandments and hast commanded us to make our sons enter into the covenant of

Abraham our father.” In Israel this is followed by the She-Heheyanu

benediction. The congregated guests reply “Even as this child has entered

into the covenant so may he enter into the Torah, the nuptial canopy, and into

good deeds.”

Although the dressing of the wound

does not form a statutory part of the rite, the sages took an active interest

in the incidence of hemorrhage after the operation. According to Katznelson

hemophilia was recognized in talmudic times, because there is a law that a

mother who has lost two children from the unquestionable effects of

circumcision, must not have her next sons operated on until they are older and

better able to undergo the operation. Moreover, should two sisters each have

lost a son from the effects of circumcision, the other sisters must not have

their sons circumcised (Sh. Ar., YD 263:2-3).

The child is then handed to the

father or to an honored guest, and the mohel,

holding a goblet of wine, recites the benediction for wine and a second

benediction praising God who established a covenant with His people Israel.

The mohel then recites a prayer

for the welfare of the child during the course of which the name of the child

is announced. Naming a child at the circumcision is an ancient custom already

mentioned in Luke 1:59. It is customary for the mohel

to give the infant a few drops of wine to drink. The ceremony is followed by a

festive meal at which special hymns are sung, and in the Grace after Meals

blessings are recited for the parents, the sandak

and the mohel. (Circumcision)

Quite predictably, Jesus (pbuh)

referred to this tradition approvingly, without even a shade of disapproval.

According to John 7: 22, Jesus (pbuh) said:

Moses gave you circumcision (it

is, of course, not from Moses, but from the patriarchs), and you circumcise a

man on the Sabbath.

Nevertheless, immediately after

Jesus (pbuh), there arose a debate among the apostles regarding whether or not

should they prescribe circumcision for the adult converts. The Acts of the

Apostles has briefly narrated this debate among the apostles. It reads:

Then certain individuals came down

from Judea and were teaching the brothers, “Unless you are circumcised

according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved.” And after Paul and

Barnabas had no small dissension and debate with them, Paul and Barnabas and

some of the others were appointed to go up to Jerusalem to discuss this

question with the apostles and the elders. So they were sent on their way by

the church, and as they passed through both Phoenicia and Samaria, they

reported the conversion of the Gentiles, and brought great joy to all the

believers. When they came to Jerusalem, they were welcomed by the church and

the apostles and the elders, and they reported all that God had done with

them. But some believers who belonged to the sect of the Pharisees stood up

and said, “It is necessary for them to be circumcised and ordered to keep

the law of Moses.” The apostles and the elders met together to consider this

matter. After there had been much debate, Peter stood up and said to them, “My brothers, you know that in the early days God made a choice among you,

that I should be the one through whom the Gentiles would hear the message of

the good news and become believers. And God, who knows the human heart,

testified to them by giving them the Holy Spirit, just as he did to us; and in

cleansing their hearts by faith he has made no distinction between them and

us. Now therefore why are you putting God to the test by placing on the neck

of the disciples a yoke that neither our ancestors nor we have been able to

bear? On the contrary, we believe that we will be saved through the grace of

the Lord Jesus, just as they will.” The whole assembly kept silence, and

listened to Barnabas and Paul as they told of all the signs and wonders that

God had done through them among the Gentiles. After they finished speaking,

James replied, “My brothers, listen to me. Simeon has related how God first

looked favorably on the Gentiles, to take from among them a people for his

name. This agrees with the words of the prophets, as it is written, After this

I will return, and I will rebuild the dwelling of David, which has fallen;

from its ruins I will rebuild it, and I will set it up, so that all other

peoples may seek the Lord – even all the Gentiles over whom my name has been

called. Thus says the Lord, who has been making these things known from long

ago. Therefore I have reached the decision that we should not trouble those

Gentiles who are turning to God, but we should write to them to abstain only

from things polluted by idols and from fornication and from whatever has been

strangled and from blood. (Acts 15: 1 – 20)

It can easily be derived from the

above cited discussion between the apostles that Jesus (pbuh) himself had given

no directive against circumcision. In fact, Jesus (pbuh) had not even hinted

toward the discontinuation of the Abrahamic tradition. Moreover, it is also

clear that the above discussion did not result in the decision of the complete

abolition of the said tradition; on the contrary, it was actually an allowance

granted by the apostles to the adult converts in view of the fact that such a

strong directive was likely to dissuade them from believing in the message of

the new prophet.

Subsequently, Paul started

propagating the abolition of the Mosaic Law, including the directive regarding

circumcision. Acts 21: 18 – 25 reads as:

The next day Paul went with us to

visit James; and all the elders were present. After greeting them, he related

one by one the things that God had done among the Gentiles through his

ministry. When they heard it, they praised God. Then they said to him, “You

see, brother, how many thousands of believers there are among the Jews, and

they are all zealous for the law. They have been told about you that you teach

all the Jews living among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell

them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs. What then is to

be done? They will certainly hear that you have come. So do what we tell you.

We have four men who are under a vow. Join these men, go through the rite of

purification with them, and pay for the shaving of their heads. Thus all will

know that there is nothing in what they have been told about you, but that you

yourself observe and guard the law. But as for the Gentiles who have become

believers, we have sent a letter with our judgment that they should abstain

from what has been sacrificed to idols and from blood and from what is

strangled and from fornication.” (Acts 21: 18 – 25)

Finally, Paul unequivocally declared

the redundancy of the Mosaic law and publicly started dissuading the new

converts from adhering to it:

… Christ has set us free. Stand

firm, therefore, and do not submit again to a yoke of slavery. Listen! I,

Paul, am telling you that if you let yourselves be circumcised, Christ will be

of no benefit to you. Once again I testify to every man who lets himself be

circumcised that he is obliged to obey the entire law. You who want to be

justified by the law have cut yourselves off from Christ; you have fallen away

from grace. For through the Spirit, by faith, we eagerly wait for the hope of

righteousness. For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision

counts for anything; the only thing that counts is faith working through love.

(Galatians 5: 2 – 6)

Many Apostolic Fathers have

commented on and have tried to prove the discontinuation of circumcision among

the followers of the Christ. Nevertheless, they have all failed to present even

a single clear directive of Jesus (pbuh) in which he is reported to have

disapproved the said practice, in particular, or adherence to the Mosaic Law, in

general. The most that has been said about circumcision is that it actually

signifies removing the foreskin of one’s heart and, thereby, submitting to the

directives of the Almighty^[42].

Nevertheless, they have clearly omitted the point that even if ‘circumcision’ is taken to be symbolic of

‘the heart’, it does not by

itself refute the Abrahamic custom; on the contrary, it only proves that the

concept of circumcision remains incomplete, if it does not encompass that of the

heart. It does not, by itself, imply that the spirit of the directive suffices

for the symbol as well.

It is, in fact, on the basis of the

foregoing arguments that the Muslim mind holds the abolition of the Mosaic Laws

and Practices as a part of the innovations of Paul, which absolutely lack the

support of Jesus (pbuh).

Although not much could be found

regarding cleaning the mouth, nose and teeth, yet, the Encyclopedia Judaica

states:

The rabbis considered the human

body as a sanctuary (Ta’an. 11a-b). They stressed the importance of good and

regular meals (Shab. 140b), and gave much advice on the types of food

conducive to good health (Hul.

84a; Ber. 40a, Av. Zar. 11a), and on the care of teeth (Ber. 4b; Shab.

111a; TJ, Av. Zar. 3:6). (Hygiene)

Likewise, there is not much

reference to wiping or washing the organs after urination or defecation.

Nevertheless, there is a brief reference to it in the Talmud. The Talmud reads:

It has been taught: R. Akiba said:

Once I went in after R. Joshua to a privy, and I learnt from him three things.

I learnt that one does not sit east and west but north and south; I learnt

that one evacuates not standing but sitting; and I learnt that it is proper to

wipe with the left hand and not with the right^[43].

(Ber. 62a)

As far as the menstruation (and

puerperal bleeding) of a woman is concerned, the Torah has expressly declared it

to be uncleanness and has directed for the discontinuation of sexual relations

between husband and wife during these days. Leviticus 20: 18 reads as:

If there is a man who lies with a

menstruous woman and uncovers her nakedness, he has laid bare her flow, and

she has exposed the flow of her blood; thus both of them shall be cut off from

among their people. (Leviticus 20: 18)

Thus, as is clear from the cited

part of the Torah, sexual relation with a menstruous woman was a punishable

crime according to the Torah^[44].

However, it is also clear from the Torah that the uncleanness of a woman during

her menstrual periods did not merely result in the discontinuation of sexual

relations, but actually required a woman to be completely secluded from the rest

of the household. Leviticus 15: 19 – 33 reads as:

When a woman has a discharge, if

her discharge in her body is blood, she shall continue in her menstrual

impurity for seven days; and whoever touches her shall be unclean until

evening. Everything also on which she lies during her menstrual impurity shall

be unclean, and everything on which she sits shall be unclean. Anyone who

touches her bed shall wash his clothes and bathe in water and be unclean until

evening. Whoever touches any thing on which she sits shall wash his clothes

and bathe in water and be unclean until evening. Whether it be on the bed or

on the thing on which she is sitting, when he touches it, he shall be unclean

until evening. If a man actually lies with her so that her menstrual impurity

is on him, he shall be unclean seven days, and every bed on which he lies

shall be unclean. Now if a woman has a discharge of her blood many days, not

at the period of her menstrual impurity, or if she has a discharge beyond that

period, all the days of her impure discharge she shall continue as though in

her menstrual impurity; she is unclean. Any bed on which she lies all the days

of her discharge shall be to her like her bed at menstruation; and every thing

on which she sits shall be unclean, like her uncleanness at that time.

Likewise, whoever touches them shall be unclean and shall wash his clothes and

bathe in water and be unclean until evening. When she becomes clean from her

discharge, she shall count off for herself seven days; and afterward she will

be clean. Then on the eighth day she shall take for herself two turtledoves or

two young pigeons and bring them in to the priest, to the doorway of the tent

of meeting. The priest shall offer the one for a sin offering and the other

for a burnt offering. So the priest shall make atonement on her behalf before

the LORD because of her impure discharge. Thus you shall keep the sons of

Israel separated from their uncleanness, so that they will not die in their

uncleanness by their defiling My tabernacle that is among them. This is the

law for the one with a discharge, and for the man who has a seminal emission

so that he is unclean by it, and for the woman who is ill because of menstrual

impurity, and for the one who has a discharge, whether a male or a female, or

a man who lies with an unclean woman.

The Torah has also mentioned the

uncleanness of the woman during her puerperal discharge. The Torah says:

Then the LORD spoke to Moses,

saying, Speak to the sons of Israel, saying: When a woman gives birth and

bears a male child, then she shall be unclean for seven days, as in the days

of her menstruation she shall be unclean. On the eighth day the flesh of his

foreskin shall be circumcised. Then she shall remain in the blood of her

purification for thirty-three days; she shall not touch any consecrated thing,

nor enter the sanctuary until the days of her purification are completed. But

if she bears a female child, then she shall be unclean for two weeks, as in

her menstruation; and she shall remain in the blood of her purification for

sixty-six days. When the days of her purification are completed, for a son or

for a daughter, she shall bring to the priest at the doorway of the tent of

meeting a one year old lamb for a burnt offering and a young pigeon or a

turtledove for a sin offering. Then he shall offer it before the LORD and make

atonement for her, and she shall be cleansed from the flow of her blood. This

is the law for her who bears a child, whether a male or a female. But if she

cannot afford a lamb, then she shall take two turtledoves or two young

pigeons, the one for a burnt offering and the other for a sin offering; and

the priest shall make atonement for her, and she will be clean. (Leviticus 12:

1 – 8)

The Encyclopedia Judaica says:

According to Jewish law, a woman

is forbidden to maintain sexual relations with her husband during and for some

time both before and after (see below) her menses.

… In brief, the halakhah

as at present codified is that sexual intercourse (and any other intimacies

which may lead to it) is forbidden from the time the woman expects her menses

until seven clean days (i.e., days on which no blood whatsoever is seen) have

elapsed. For this purpose a minimum of five days is fixed for the menses

themselves. Thus the minimum period of separation is 12 days. In the evening

of the seventh day without sign of blood the woman immerses herself in a mikveh^[45]

and normal marital relations are resumed until the next menses are expected.

Any bleeding is considered as menstrual and requires a waiting period of seven

clean days. (Niddah^[46])

It is also clear from the above

excerpt that a ritual bathing (called ‘mikveh’) should be performed after

the discontinuation of the menstrual or puerperal bleeding.

At another instance, the

Encyclopedia Judaica explains:

Total immersion^[47]

also came to form part of the ceremony of conversion to Judaism, although

there is a difference of opinion concerning whether it.is required for males

in addition to circumcision, or in lieu of it (Yev. 46a). Since the

destruction of the Temple, or shortly thereafter, the laws of impurity have

been in abeyance. The reason is that the ashes of the red heifer, which are

indispensible for the purification ritual, are no longer available. Thus,

everybody is now considered ritually impure. The only immersions still

prescribed are those of the niddah and

the proselyte, because these do not require the ashes of the red heifer and

because the removal of the impurity concerned is necessary also for other than

purely sacral purposes (entry into the Temple area, eating of “holy”

things). The niddah is thereby

permitted to have sexual relations and the proselyte is endowed with the full

status of the Jew.

In addition to the cases mentioned

in the Bible, the rabbis ordained that after any seminal discharge, whether or

not resulting from copulation, total immersion is required in order to be

ritually pure again for prayer or study of the Torah. Since this was a

rabbinical institution, immersion in drawn water or even pouring 9 kav

(approx. 4½ gallons) of water over the body was considered

sufficient. The ordinance was attributed to Ezra (BK 82a, b) but it did not

find universal acceptance and was later officially abolished (Ber. 2lb-22a;

Maim. Yad, Keri’at Shema 4:8). Nevertheless, the pious still observe this

ordinance.

From amongst the early Christian

scholars Thomas Aquinas considers the prohibition of establishing sexual

relations with one’s wife during her menstruation as a prohibition, which the

Christians are also required to observe. Aquinas writes:

It was forbidden in the Law to

approach to a menstruous woman, for two reasons both on account of her

uncleanness, and on account of the harm that frequently resulted to the

offspring from such intercourse. With regard to the first reason, it was a

ceremonial precept, but with regard to the second it was a moral precept. For

since marriage is chiefly directed to the good of the offspring, all use of

marriage which is intended for the good of the offspring is in order.

Consequently this precept is binding even in the New Law on account of the

second reason, although not on account of the first. Now, the menstrual issue

may be natural or unnatural. The natural issue is that to which women are

subject at stated periods when they are in good health; and it is unnatural

when they suffer from an issue of blood through some disorder resulting from

sickness. Accordingly, if the menstrual flow be unnatural it is not forbidden

in the New Law to approach to a menstruous woman both on account of her

infirmity since a woman in that state cannot conceive, and because an issue of

this kind is lasting and continuous, so that the husband would have to abstain

for always. When however the woman is subject to a natural issue of the

menstruum, she can conceive; moreover, the said issue lasts only a short time,

wherefore it is forbidden to approach to her. (Thomas Aquinas, Summa

Theologica, Supplement to Vol. 6, Question 64, A(3).)

Regarding the death rites, the

Encyclopedia of Judaism says:

Attending to the dead is

considered the most selfless of the commandments in the Torah. According to

the rabbis, the respect and care given the newly deceased stems from the

belief that man was created in the image of God; although the life is now

gone, the human form must be respected for having once embodied a Divine

spirit. (Corpse)

It further writes:

Close to the time of burial, the hevrah

kaddisha^[48]

perform the Tohorah^[49].

(Corpse)

The Encyclopedia, at another

instance, writes:

After members of the burial

society have taken charge of the body, they prepare it for burial, washing it

thoroughly in a process known   as Tohorah

(or taharah, i.e., ritual

purification) and then dressing it in a white-linen shroud (takhrikhin)…

Finally, the shrouded corpse is placed either in a coffin or on a bier prior

to the funeral service. According to the most ancient practice, still observed

in Israel and by some Eastern Sephardi Jews, no coffin is used and burial

takes place directly in the earth.  A

coffin was used, however, for the burial of Joseph (Gen. 50: 26) and this type

of burial was accepted by talmudic times. Maimonides ruled that Jews should be

buried in  wooden 

coffins  (Yad, Evel 4.4),

as is now general practice throughout the Diaspora and, for state and military

funerals,  in Israel as well.

Observant Jews only permit the use of a plain wooden coffin (aron), with no

metal handles or adornments, lined ornamental “caskets” being prohibited.

Following the example of R. Judah ha-Nasi (TJ Kil. 9.4), some arrange for

holes to be drilled in the base of the coffin so that the body may have more

direct contact with the earth. Whether in a coffin or on a bier, the deceased

is borne to the grave face upward; adult males are buried wearing their prayer

shawl (tallit), one of the

fringes having been removed or deliberately marred in order to render the

prayer shawl unfit. In some Eastern communities, the deceased Jew’s

phylacteries (tefillin) are also

buried with him. (burial)

It

is also well known that the Christians generally observed the burial rite and,

not until very recently, they did not allow for cremation of the dead.

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